Summary and Key Terms
How Memory Functions
Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.
Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing. Storage is retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. The idea that information is processed through three memory systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory. First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less than a second to a few seconds. Those stimuli that we notice and pay attention to then move into short-term memory. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, if we rehearse this information, then it moves into long-term memory for permanent storage. Other models like that of Baddeley and Hitch suggest there is more of a feedback loop between short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory has a practically limitless storage capacity and is divided into implicit and explicit memory.
Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory
Beginning with Karl Lashley, researchers and psychologists have been searching for the engram, which is the physical trace of memory. Lashley did not find the engram, but he did suggest that memories are distributed throughout the entire brain rather than stored in one specific area. Now we know that three brain areas do play significant roles in the processing and storage of different types of memories: cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala. The cerebellum’s job is to process procedural memories; the hippocampus is where new memories are encoded; the amygdala helps determine what memories to store, and it plays a part in determining where the memories are stored based on whether we have a strong or weak emotional response to the event. Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so that memory for an emotional event is usually stronger than memory for a non-emotional event. This is shown by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon: our ability to remember significant life events. However, our memory for life events (autobiographical memory) is not always accurate.
Problems with Memory
All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even embarrassed when our memories have failed us. Our memory is flexible and prone to many errors, which is why eyewitness testimony has been found to be largely unreliable. There are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may be due to amnesia. Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory in the first place. Schacter presents seven memory errors that also contribute to forgetting. Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but we cannot access it due to interference. Proactive interference happens when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.
Ways to Enhance Memory
There are many ways to combat the inevitable failures of our memory system. Some common strategies that can be used in everyday situations include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and adequate sleep. These same strategies also can help you to study more effectively.
Key Terms
- absentmindedness
- lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else
- acoustic encoding
- input of sounds, words, and music
- amnesia
- loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
- anterograde amnesia
- loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma
- arousal theory
- strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories
- Atkinson-Shiffrin model
- memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
- automatic processing
- encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words
- bias
- how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events
- blocking
- memory error in which you cannot access stored information
- chunking
- organizing information into manageable bits or chunks
- construction
- formulation of new memories
- declarative memory
- type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience
- effortful processing
- encoding of information that takes effort and attention
- elaborative rehearsal
- thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory
- encoding
- input of information into the memory system
- engram
- physical trace of memory
- episodic memory
- type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory
- equipotentiality hypothesis
- some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories
- explicit memory
- memories we consciously try to remember and recall
- false memory syndrome
- recall of false autobiographical memories
- flashbulb memory
- exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
- forgetting
- loss of information from long-term memory
- implicit memory
- memories that are not part of our consciousness
- levels of processing
- information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory
- long-term memory (LTM)
- continuous storage of information
- memory
- set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time
- memory-enhancing strategy
- technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory
- misattribution
- memory error in which you confuse the source of your information
- misinformation effect paradigm
- after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event
- mnemonic device
- memory aids that help organize information for encoding
- persistence
- failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones
- proactive interference
- old information hinders the recall of newly learned information
- procedural memory
- type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim
- recall
- accessing information without cues
- recognition
- identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue
- reconstruction
- process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information
- rehearsal
- repetition of information to be remembered
- relearning
- learning information that was previously learned
- retrieval
- act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness
- retroactive interference
- information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information
- retrograde amnesia
- loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma
- self-reference effect
- tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
- semantic encoding
- input of words and their meaning
- semantic memory
- type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts
- sensory memory
- storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes
- short-term memory (STM)
- holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used
- storage
- creation of a permanent record of information
- suggestibility
- effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
- transience
- memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time
- visual encoding
- input of images
